Introduction
Literary theories are tools that enable one to have a better and more meaningful understanding of literary forms and conventions, and interpret literary works. In this chapter, you will learn the origin and development of literature nationally and internationally based on mimetic, myth and ritual theories.
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You will also examine their contribution to the selected literary texts. Lastly, you will apply the theories to trace the origin and development of various genres of folklore and written literature. The competencies developed will help you interpret different literary works in different social and historical contexts.
Mimetic Theory
Mimetic theory, also known as the theory of imitation, was originally introduced by the Greek scholar Aristotle. Mimetic comes from the Greek word mimes, meaning “copy”. The words “copy,” “representation,” and “imitation” are used interchangeably to refer to this theory.
The central claim of imitation theory is that literature represents the copied experiences of the author from the community. The theory, therefore, holds the assumption that a literary text is a product of the author’s imitation of the surroundings. After imitating, the author represents the imitated experiences through narration, dramatisation, or recication.
Literary texts that are said to be the representation of the imitated experiences are usually heightened by the writers’ true or imaginary encounters with what is happening in society.
Myth Theory
The word myth comes from the Greek word mythos, which means “word” or “story”. It is a traditional story that explains the early history, the origin of something, or the reasons for certain behaviours, cultural beliefs or practices of people. In literature, myth theory is believed to have played a significant role in its origin by providing ancient sccieties with stories, themes, and characters that inspired the creation of written texts.
It unfolds the characteristics of myth, such as the plot, settings, nature of the characters, and themes. The theory of myth is often used to examine the mythic elements within a text, such as the underlying themes, symbols, and structures present in a literary text. By doing so, readers gain a deeper understanding of the texts’ cultural, psychological, and symbolic significance.
The theory can be used to identify archetypal characters and motifs within a text, explore the ways in which myths are adapted and reinterpreted in literature, analyse the role of myth in shaping the narrative structure and meaning of a text and examine how myths reflect and reinforce societal values and beliefs.
Ritual Theory
Ritual theory is a multidisciplinary theory that is used to study and interpret rituals across various cultural, religious, and social contexts. It includes various perspectives from disciplines such as anthropology, literary studies, sociology, psychology and religious studies. Ritual theory focuses on social interaction; it is believed that rituals form group emotions that are linked to cultural symbols, beliefs, and thinking.
In Greek literary history, the origin of drama is associated with ritual theory, specifically the worship of Dionysius, a god of wine and fertility. Each year, Greek people went to a sacred place (shrine) to perform rituals in praise of or honour Dionysius. During this ceremony, there were the audience (Dionysiusy, actors (the Greeks), stage (sacred place/shrines), and message (what they intended god to do for them). In addition, there are singers (chorus), stories, and special costumes. These elements were adapted into written drama (play) in the 5e century, and drama became central to the Greek community.
Ritual theory helps in literary analysis by offering a framework for understanding the symbolic, psychological, and cultural dimensions of rituals represented in literary texts. It motivates reudets tb explore the meaning and implications of ritualistic practices used in storytelling.
The contribution of imitation, ritual, and mythical elements in literary texts
Exercise
1. Examine the strengths and weaknesses of using imitation, myth, and ritual theories in literary analysis.
2. How do these theories enhance our understanding of the relationship between a text’s literary techniques and social and cultural contexts?
3. Assess the contribution of the three theories to a rich and in-depth analysis of a literary text.
4. Discuss the possible challenges associated with these theories regarding literary interpretation and application.
5. How effective is the mythological framcwork in offering insights into the text’s meaning and significance?
The origin and development of various genres of written literature internationally
Drama
Classical Greek drama
Drama started to develop in Greece in the 6a century B.C., and it was connected with the worship of the Greek god called Dionysus. The rationale for linking the origin of drama and imitation theory can be established by analysing the ancient hymns called dithyrambs which were sung in honour of Lord Dionysiur, The hymns were adopted in drama as the chorus, in which participants wore special costumes and masks. This provides a dramatic pattern that is observed during the performance.
Drama in the West (Europe)
From Greece, drama spread and developed in other European countries such as Italy, England and France at different times. For instance, mystery plays flourished during the medieval period (13″16″ centuries). They portrayed religious content, mainly the world’s creation, the death of Jesus Christ and the last judgement. The development of drama reached its climax during the Renaissance movement in the 16 century. It was during this time that Europeans began to venture into new lands.
New ideas were born, and the church was separated from the state. This newness led to the development of new secular forms of play. Secular plays reminded people more about order and nationalism and encouraged them to stop struggling for power.
Drama in Africa
Three phases may be identified in the evolution of contemporary African theatre (drama) from traditional origins: Pre-colonial or ancient African, nationalist and modem drama.
Emergence and development of drama in Africa based on eras:
1. Pre-colonial/Ancient African drama
2. Nationalist drama
3. Modern drama
1. Pre-Colonial/Ancient African drama
The roots of traditional African drama emerged from various sources such as religious ceremonies, funeral customs and imitation of life, oral storytelling, and folk tales. Similar development patterns can be observed in various regions globally. In this phase, drama arose from the close relationships between individuals, communities, and the natural world. It satisfied basic human needs like amusement and adoration, and it was ritual, ceremonial and oral in transmission.
For example, the Nigerian puppet performances are known as Bornu and Alarinjo, which originated as ceremonies before gaining popularity with metropolitan audiences. In Egypt, theatre dates back thousands of years. Drama originated from religious rites, like the Pharaonic era’s Abydos Osiris Passion play, which included dramatic aspects that were accompanied by music.
2. The nationalist drama
Foreign influences were introduced into contemporary African play during its second stage, which is known as the nationalist phase in Nigeria and other parts of West Africa. In their efforts to convert more people to Christianity, European churches used theatre to educate and evangelize the local populace while advancing European culture. During this time, several Western-influenced societies and organisations were established, including the Philharmonic Society and the People’% Union, which presented plays in the popular styles of English music halls, Colonial rule oversaw theatre in East Africa, especially in Kenya. Traditional community performances were stage-centric, establishing a significant divide between artists and spectators.
Similarly, colonial theatre in Southern Africa supplanted native theatrical traditions to further the objectives of European settlers by introducing Africans to European culture and educating them about Western civilisation.
3. The modern drama
This phase comprises the postcolonial and contemporary playwright and their works. In West Africa, it is marked by playwrights such as Hubert Ogunde, a Nigerian theatre pioneer, who combined Yoruba music and dances with novel features to create Native Air Opera, which is considered the first theatrical tradition. Ogunde’s art represented social realities and was crucial to Nigeria’s fight for independence. The era seriously evolved following the rise of amateur theatre groups and Wole Soyinka’s “The 1960 Masks” which emerged in the 1960s.
In the 1960s, university theatre programs encouraged literary theatre even more, which critiqued societal problems such as government corruption. In East Africa, for example, Kenya was the epicentre of East African posteolonial theatre, with the Kenyan National Theatre acting as a centre for theatrical productions.
For example, The Black Hermit by Ngugi wa Thiong’o examined conflicts between modernity and tradition, while Ebrahim Hussein’s works, including Kinjeketile, mark this era in Tanzania by exploring colonial evils in the colonial southern Tanganyika. Notably, these plays adapted traditional African dramatic forms and merged them with Western dramatic conventions that African playwrights developed due to colonial legacies in Africa.
Exercise 8
1. Discuss the contribution of rituals and ceremonies to the development of drama in Europe and Africa.
2. Assess the contribution of storytelling and oral traditions to the origin and development of drama.
3. What impact did the Renaissance have on the revival and transformation of drama in Europe, particularly with the emergence of Shakespearean theatre?
4. Discuss how the Enlightenment period shaped the themes, styles, and purposes of drama, particularly in relation to reason, morality, and societal critique.
5. Explain how the globalisation of theatre and the exchange of ideus across cultures influenced the development of drama in different regiens of the world.
6. Use mimetic theory to explain how social, political, and technological aspects of life are reflected in a literary work of your choice.
Novel
Emergence and development of Novel based on eras:
1. African novel in English
2. Late 19C to early 20 century colonial fiction
3. Colonialism and the African novel in English
4. Contemporary African novel
The word novel is considered to have come from the Latin word novellus, the Italian word novella and the French word novelle, which basically mean “a little new thing”.
A novel is normally a product of the author’s imagination, which is shaped by the socio-cultural sphere to which the author belongs. Its origin can best be explained by mythical and imitation theories. It imitates society’s cultural experiences, and it uses mythical elements such as characters, setting and plot. These are mythical because they never exist in the real world.
With the rise and development of novels in the 18″ century, the meaning of the word novel changed from short tale in prose to ‘prose narrative of considerable length’. Thus, with an understanding of the definition of a novel, it is relevant to discuss what factors or situations provided opportunities for the rise of the novel in the 18a century.
The rise of the novel in the West (Europe)
Many scholars consider the 18″ century to be the time when the novel rose and developed as a genre. The reasons for its development include the increase in literacy rate, the industrial revolution, the rise of the middle claxs and the emergence of libraries.
Furthermore, the emergence of an individualistic and contemplative society called for literature that focuses on individual experiences and emotions.
With the noyel, the story changed from romance and became pragmatic, focusing on the morality of the middle class. The novel started to explore human characters, using real-life characters. Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe is considered the first advanced English novel.
1. African novel in English
The development of the novel as a genre in Africa can be looked at based on three phases: from the late 19ª to early 20ª century, colonial and postcolonial novels, as well as the contemporary African novel.
2. Late 19C to early 20 Century colonial fiction
This phase in the development of the African novel is termed by J. M. Coetzee as “white writing”, and is exemplified by European novels set in Africa. Several scholars agree that the colonial novel in English finds its roots in works like Aphrah Behn’s “Oroonoko,” published in 1688, though later novels often portrayed Africa negatively. Even so, colonial fiction emerged during European imperialism, including Henry Rider Haggard’s adventurous tales like King Solomon’s Mines (1885) and She (1887), which romanticised colonialism.
Joyce Cary’s nuanced portrayal in works Eke Mister Johnson (1939) and The African Witch (1936), explored colonial relationships in British West Africa, revealing humanity and brutality. Joseph Conrad’s Heort of Darkness (1899) depicts European imperialism, delving into themes of exploitation and racism through Marlow’s journey into the Congo, highlighting the mcral darkness of colonial endeavours.
Most of these narratives depicted Africans negatively as uncivilised but motivated Africans to write novels that could be read as talkbacks.
3. Colonialism and the African novel in English
The dominance of the novel as the primary literary form in Africa today, much like elsewhere globally, stems from European influence and its association with literate modernity. The transition from oral to written storyteiling is deeply intertwined with Africa’s colonial experience and Christian missions. This transition marked a shift from the longstanding tradition of poetry and drama. Despite this transition, elements of the oral tradition persist in African novels, especially those written in indigenous languages, where storytelling techniques directly influence content and style.
Early African novelists often emerged from missionary schools, imbuing their works with didactic and evangelical purposes, aligning with Christian teachings. The colonial encounter provided a fertile ground for the emergence of written fiction. Chinua Achebe’s Things Fall Apert (1958) marked a significant departure from this trend, presenting a nuanced portrayal of African life and challenging imperialist narratives.
Ngugi wa Thiong’o extended this tradition by grounding his narratives in Kikuyu culture to reflect Kenya’s colonial history. Howeyer, before Achebe’s Things Fall Apart, several African novels in English were written in Africa.
They included a Liberian novel, Love in Ebony: A West African Rewiance (1932), written by Charles Cooper, who wrote it under the name Varfelli Karlee; Ghanaian novels, Eighteenpence (1941), written by R.E. Obeng, Emelia’s Promise and Fulfilment (1944), written by John Benibengor, a South African novel Mine Boy (1946), written by Peter Abrahams; and the Nigerian novel The Palm-Wine Drinkard and His Dead Palm-Wine Tapster in the Deads’ Town written by Amos Tutuola in 1952. Achebe’s Things Fall Apart (1958) is perhaps the best-known African novel of the 20ª century.
Other popular African novels in English include Ngugi wa Thiong’o’s The River Between (1965), Flora Nwapa’s Efuru (1966), Ayi Kwei Armah’s The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born (1968) and Buchi Emecheta’s The Slave Girl (1977). Such writings can be well situated under colonial and post-colonial periods.
4. The contemporary African novel in English
Overall, the African novel continues to evolve. It draws from oral traditions and colonial legacies to address contemporary socio-political issues. It also embraces diverse voices, including those of women and marginalised communities. This category includes works of novelists such as Nadine Gordimer, Nnedi Okorafor, Petina Gappah, and others.
Exercise
1. Account for the contribution of storytelling traditions, such as epics, myths, folk tales, and fables, to the development of the novel.
2. Examine the contribution of the Industrial Revoiution to the rise of the novel.
3. Assess the contribution of colonialism, nationalism and neoliberalism to the development of the African novel.
Short story
A. Read various online or library materials and trace the emergence and development of poetry in the West (Europe) based on the following headings:
1. The origin of short stories in Greek
2. The emergence of short stories in Europe
3. The emergence of modern short stories in the 19ª century
4. The development of short stories in the 20° century
5. Contemporary short stories as innovative and thought-provoking texts
B. Read various online or library materials and trace the emergence and development of poetry in Africa based on the following headings:
1. The origin of short stories in Africa
2. The relationship between the history of short stories in Africa and that of the novel as a genre
3. Survey African short story writers and answer the following questions:
a) Who are those writers?
b) What are the titles of their short stories?
c) What are their common themes?
d) Do the themes identified change according to time? Explain.